African Journal of Rural Development

Establishing and Harmonizing Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Regulatory Regimes across the Eight Regional Economic Communities (RECs) of the African Union (AU)

Margaret Khaitsa — 2025-10-03

Mississippi State University (MSU) with support from the United States Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service (USDA-FAS) collaborated with the African Union (AU), the eight AU regional economic communities (RECs), and eight AU member states to implement a Fellowship Exchange Program whose goal was to establish and harmonize Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) regulatory regimes across the eight AU-RECs. Sixteen AU and RECs officials and 11 SPS officials from AU member states were trained at MSU and other SPS institutions in the US to establish and harmonize SPS regulatory regimes in Africa. Following return of the fellows to their respective countries, MSU faculty who participated in the fellowship paid reciprocal visits to the fellows’ institutions in Africa to support them in implementing research projects developed while in the US and explore sustainable collaborations. Also, several sensitization and training workshops were organized in Africa (The Gambia, Mozambique, Nigeria, Uganda and Zambia) to support capacity development for implementing SPS regulatory regimes. Additional outputs of the program included a grant to the Nigerian National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC), and twenty- one papers on SPS related topics published by the East African Community Journal of Science and Technology and Innovation (EAJSTI, 6 papers) and the African Journal of Rural Development (AFJRD-13 papers grouped into 8 themes: Introduction, Perspectives SPS Policy Framework for Africa and the African Continental Free Trade Area, Food Safety, Plant Health, Animal Health, General SPS Policy/Management, Other Barriers to Trade and development in Africa, and the Conclusion.

The Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) barriers for Agro-food trade under AfCFTA with case examples for EAC and SADC Regions

Ananias Bagumire — 2025-10-03

Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) barriers significantly hinder intra-African trade under the AfCFTA, primarily due to three key challenges: inconsistent legal frameworks, weak institutional capacity, and infrastructural deficiencies. These issues result in low SPS compliance, restricting market access for agricultural products. Analysis of EAC and SADC regions reveals specific trade obstacles, including pest infestations, unharmonized standards for plant/animal movement, inadequate disease surveillance, and high food contaminant levels.

Three systemic weaknesses drive SPS non-compliance: regulatory disparities across countries create complex and costly compliance burdens, under-resourced agencies struggle with enforcement, and poor infrastructure such as inadequate storage, laboratories, and transport networks undermines effective SPS controls. Smallholder farmers and MSMEs, which dominate Africa's agri-food sector, often lack the resources to meet SPS requirements which reduces their competitiveness in regional and global markets.

To fully realize AfCFTA's trade potential, coordinated action is essential. Member states, Regional Economic Communities (RECs), and the African Union (AU) must work together to harmonize SPS standards, strengthen regulatory capacity, and invest in critical infrastructure. Addressing these barriers will enhance agri-food trade integration, improve food safety, and boost Africa's competitiveness in domestic and international markets.

The Overcoming Sanitary and Phytosanitary barriers to Agro-food trade under African Continental Free Trade Area

Ananias Bagumire — 2025-10-03

The successful implementation of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) is challenged by significant Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) barriers, which can be grouped into three main categories.

The first category involves weaknesses in policy and legal frameworks, primarily the lack of harmonized SPS strategies and legislation across member states, creating burdensome and inconsistent compliance requirements.

The second category encompasses weaknesses in institutional systems. These include a lack of technical expertise, weak implementation of risk analysis principles, inadequate inspection capacities, and the exclusion of the informal sector from food safety controls. Furthermore, low SPS awareness, limited use of international standards, and poor coordination and information exchange between agencies hinder effective SPS management.

The third category includes barriers in the infrastructure system. This involves the use of inappropriate technologies and facilities throughout agro-food value chains, insufficient investment in testing and diagnostic laboratories, and outdated infrastructure at border posts.

To overcome these challenges, a multi-faceted approach is recommended. For policy and legal barriers, harmonizing standards or negotiating mutual recognition agreements is key. Addressing institutional weaknesses requires capacity building through education and training, strengthening inspection services, adopting risk-based controls, and improving coordination. For infrastructure, significant investment is needed in modern technologies, laboratory modernization, and upgrading border facilities, including implementing one-stop border posts.

Achieving these goals demands collective action and commitment from individual Member States, Regional Economic Communities (RECs), and the African Union (AU) to address the SPS challenges that currently undermine regional integration and agro-food trade under the AfCFTA.

Leveraging data to enhance Sanitary and phytosanitary measures and compliance in Kenya: a case study

George Gitau — 2025-10-03

Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) are salient in ensuring consumer safety and mitigating the spread of diseases or pests. However, inconsistent data on food safety, plant, and animal health and challenges with data quality and accuracy, analysis, and interpretation; bureaucracy; human capacity and financial constraints may limit compliance with local and international standards. To improve market access through targeted monitoring and surveillance, there is a need to enhance local data collection and sharing and leverage the role of both public and private entities. The paper is a review that outlines key aspects of SPS data requirements, available databases, challenges, and opportunities for improvement. The process involved an exploration of the key local and international databases including the World Trade Organization, World Organization for Animal Health, COMESA, and Intergovernmental Authority on Development. We propose programs for data collection, management, and analysis incorporating both public and private sectors, while leveraging advanced technologies like big data analytics and blockchain technology to streamline SPS data processing and decision making. We further explored the establishment of frameworks for gap analysis, data sharing, and interoperability between entities. Emphasise was placed on the importance of capacity building, technology adoption, education, awareness, research, and collaboration in the context of SPS data requirements. Finally, we assessed the compliance, and utilization as important components for regional and international agricultural and food products market access and competitiveness. These strategies when successfully implemented will enhance SPS data collection, quality, and analysis, and improve their incorporation into biosecurity frameworks.

Vegetable Consumption Predictors in Three Markets, Kampala, Uganda

Andrew Andrew — 2025-10-03

Vegetable consumption remains low among Africans, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. A study
conducted in the greater Kampala metropolitan area of Uganda examined consumer patterns and
challenges in adopting vegetables as part of the staple diet. The majority of vegetable consumers (65.3
%) were women, with Nakawa market being crucial. Participants had a mean age of 34.6 years and were
primarily Catholic (34.2%), were Ugandans, had a basic education, and earned a monthly income above
USD 110. Vegetable consumption frequency every week was similar between Nakawa and Kalerwe.
markets. The most commonly consumed vegetables were the leafy vegetables, dodo Amaranthus
dubius (47.5%), and cabbages Brassica oleracea (63.9%). 'Biringanya' Solanum melongena (82,9%)
was the most purchased non-leafy vegetable. Overall, vegetable consumption was low and irregular.
with specific vegetables showing daily consumption rates ranging from 41.2% to 57.1%. Challenges
associated with vegetable consumption included vegetable handling and transportation, lack of
refrigeration facilities, and inadequate equipment for storage. Charcoal was the primary cooking fuel
for most people (90.8%). Promotional efforts are needed to increase vegetable sales and consumption
in Kampala, aligning with WHO recommendations for improved nutrition, health, and income.

Post- harvest handling practices, moisture content and aflatoxin status in maize samples from selected hammer milling centers in Uganda

Muzoora S. — 2025-10-03

In Uganda, emerging evidence points to an increasing prevalence of aflatoxin contamination in cereal-based food products at toxic concentrations, necessitating routine surveillance to safeguard public health. We evaluated aflatoxin levels in maize from milling centers across eight districts and investigated associated post-harvest handling practices. Data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel (2016), Graph Pad Prism (v6.0), and IBM SPSS (2019). Data revealed that 55% of moldy maize was processed for human consumption, 30% was diverted to animal feed, and 15% was discarded. Regarding drying practices, 58% of respondents used tarpaulins, 16% dried maize directly on bare ground, and 26% milled maize without prior quality assessment. Dryness assessment methods were largely informal: 38% used the biting test, 18% a metallic rod, 9% each used peeling or noise tests, while only 10% employed moisture meters. Notably, 17% did not assess dryness at all. While all samples exhibited moisture content below the recommended 12.5% threshold, significant inter-district differences were observed (p = 0.0014). Aflatoxin G predominated in maize samples from most districts, whereas aflatoxin B was more prevalent in samples from Kampala district. Mean total aflatoxin concentrations ranged from 0.90 ± 0.46 ppb (Kampala) to 54.18 ± 0.0 ppb (Mityana), with significant regional variation (p = 0.0034). Alarmingly, all maize samples from Mityana district had total aflatoxin concentrations above the Uganda National Bureau of Standards (UNBS) regulatory limit of 10 ppb. These findings underscore the need for improved post-harvest handling and stricter regulatory enforcement to mitigate aflatoxin-associated public health risks.

Towards harmonising the registration and management of plant protection products in Africa

Niassey S. — 2025-10-03

In many countries in Africa and elsewhere, the available toolkit for managing pest problems does not always match farmers’ needs. For some crop-pest combinations, there may be few or no plant protection products registered, or those that are registered may be older, containing more hazardous molecules. Meanwhile, in low-income countries, low-quality pesticides sold on the market can also pose challenges to efficacy. This calls for review of the regulatory frameworks for the registration of pesticides and the management of plant protection products. Additionally, there is strong need to harmonize existing registration and management approaches for these products. The continental harmonization of guidelines for the registration and management of plant protection products could be a powerful tool for addressing some challenges, as the aligning processes are involved with the best practices. This paper highlights that regional harmonisation initiatives led by the Regional Economic Communities (RECs) in Africa have succeeded. However, not all countries have benefited from the REC initiatives. Likewise, while several RECs are working towards harmonizing registration and management of plant protection products, the extent and form of this harmonization does vary. Consequently, developing continental-level guidelines for registering and managing plant protection products could scale up the successes achieved. A continental-level mechanism needs to be established, building on successes of other existing pesticide registration initiatives on the harmonization of registration of pesticides at national and REC levels, consistent with international standards, and based on WTO agreements. This would align with ongoing initiatives to support continental policies on agriculture and trade.

Bacteriophage Action against Tilapia Fish Aeromonasis in Aquarium Tanks in Uganda

Andrew Andrew — 2025-10-03

Aeromonas hydrophila is a highly virulent fish pathogen that causes diseases such as Hemorrhagic Septicemia, Ulcer Disease, and Red-Sore Disease. Current management mainly relies on antibiotics, but indiscriminate use has led to resistant bacterial strains, necessitating alternative strategies. This study evaluated the use of lytic bacteriophages as a treatment for Aeromonas infections in tilapia. The pathogen was confirmed through biochemical and genetic profiling, and bacteriophages were isolated, propagated, and tested for stability in water across pH 6–9 and varying temperatures. Tilapia fingerlings (~5 g) were acclimatized and placed into aquarium tanks, with test groups either inoculated with bacteria and stressed by delayed feeding before phage application, or given phages without stress. Controls were neither infected nor treated. Results showed bacteriophages remained stable in water, and the bathing method was effective for both infection and phage delivery. Stress accelerated disease onset, while phage treatment significantly improved fish survival. Multiplicity of infection (MOI) levels of 0.01–1 were effective, though MOI 10 and 100 produced superior results. Phages persisted in the water for approximately 14 days. Survival analysis using GraphPad Prism revealed significant differences between treated and control groups, confirmed by the Mantel-Cox and Gehan-Breslow-Wilcoxon tests (p < 0.0001). Overall, direct administration of a single phage isolate effectively controlled Aeromonas hydrophila infection in tank environments. The study recommends future research on phage stability and efficacy in pond systems, including testing cocktail phage preparations from multiple isolates.

One Health Review of Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacterales in the Tropical East Africa to West Asia Belt

Ferdous KHADIJA — 2025-10-03

ABSTRACT

Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE) have emerged and spread globally throughout human, animal, and environmental contexts. They are of urgent concern in healthcare settings and are associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Ecological dissemination of CRE occurs globally, and one contributing factor is environmental contamination with residues from human, veterinary, and agricultural use of antimicrobials. High rates of antimicrobial resistance have been documented in the tropical belt of East Africa and West Asia, yet this region remains understudied in terms of coordinated One Health surveillance and response to CRE. This review synthesized data from peer-reviewed articles published between 2013 and 2025 to assess the occurrence, transmission, and control of CRE across the tropical belt from East Africa to West Asia. The most prevalent CRE species were Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli among drug-resistant bacteria sourced from humans, animals, and the environment. The reported prevalence of CRE varied greatly but in some contexts was nearly 70%, with many isolates carrying carbapenemase genes such as blaIMP and blaVIM in this tropical belt. Rising ESBL and carbapenem-resistant bacteria in East Africa and West Asia underscore the urgency for international collaboration, regulation, and data sharing to inform effective strategies and interventions against antimicrobial resistance.

Keywords: Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacterales, East Africa, One Health, West Asia

Readiness of AU Member States to address SPS requirements for trading under the AfCFTA: Lessons on Capacity Building, Sensitisation and Public Policy Initiatives in Uganda

Caroline Agonzibwa — 2025-10-03

Uganda’s ability to trade under the African Continental Free Trade Area depends on its
ability to meet sanitary and phytosanitary requirements. These measures define how food, plant,
and animal products are produced, processed, tested, and certified. If Uganda fails to meet international
standards, its exports risk rejection and its market access will remain limited. A national workshop
assessed Uganda’s readiness to implement SPS obligations under AfCFTA. The focus was on aligning policies, strengthening coordination, addressing enforcement gaps, building capacity, and increasing stakeholder awareness. Enforcement is fragmented. Institutions often work in isolation. Compliance costs are high, especially for small producers and businesses. Testing infrastructure remains weak. Coordination across agencies is limited. These gaps reduce Uganda’s ability to meet trade requirements. The workshop identified practical steps. Train on compliance. Expand access to certification.
Strengthen coordination between agencies. Improve testing and inspection systems. Share timely data
across institutions. Use digital platforms to track changes in regulations. Uganda has started using
the ePing platform to share trade-related alerts. It can support transparency and early action. But its
reach is still limited. Wider participation is needed. More institutions and private sector actors must
engage with the system. The AfCFTA Annex 7 outlines clear requirements. Uganda must align national
systems, reduce duplication, and adopt mutual recognition arrangements to lower costs. Enacting a
unified food safety law and setting up a national food authority are key next steps. Is Uganda prepared
to meet these expectations? Are our institutions ready to support trade under one African market?

Incorporating beneficial nematodes-based biocontrol agents into an integrated pest management strategy of Rwanda: A policy brief

Bancy Waithira Waweru — 2025-10-03

Climate change-induced insect pest outbreaks pose a significant threat to food security in Rwanda, particularly affecting small-holder farmers. Insect damage to crops heavily affects food production. Consequently, farmers have resorted to overreliance on chemical pesticides as control measures, thereby endangering humans and the environment. The use of beneficial nematodes for the biological control of insect pests offers an alternative solution to excessive usage of pesticides. Nematodes are tiny naturally occurring worms that attack insects and can be mass produced for use as biocontrol agents. Entomopathogenic nematodes are safe for farmers, consumers, livestock, crops and the environment. Globally they have been used for many decades for management of insect pests across various crops.

Current research studies in Rwanda demonstrate their effectiveness in controlling both below ground insect pests, such as grubs, and above-ground pests like the fall armyworm. They can be mass produced also in Rwanda and elsewhere in East Africa. Although this biological control method has shown promise in controlling insect-pests in Rwanda, there is limited availability and use of these products due to limits in commercialization. It is being proposed in this policy brief that an easy and minimized registration process be put in place for indigenous beneficial nematodes to facilitate making such products available to Rwandan farmers. It is also proposed to enhance government-led extension services and outreach programs to educate farmers about the benefits and proper use of biological control methods. In addition, they should become a component in the national integrated pest management strategy of Rwanda.

Evaluating Gender Responsiveness of the African Union Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Policy Framework for Africa

AKINYI, C. — 2025-10-03

The African Union (AU) plays a central role in shaping the policies that guide the continent’s development agenda and has made notable strides in integrating gender considerations into its policy frameworks. However, despite these efforts, gender disparities remain a significant challenge in agriculture and trade, which underscores the need for a critical gender mainstreaming review of AU policies and frameworks. This paper evaluates the gender responsiveness of the 2019-2024 AU Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) policy framework using the AU Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment (GEWE) strategy. The paper examines how this framework addresses systemic gender disparities in agriculture and trade. Although the AU-SPS policy framework mentions gender mainstreaming, it lacks explicit gender-targeted initiatives and fails to integrate gender-sensitive mechanisms effectively. The AU-SPS policy framework primarily focuses on technical aspects of agriculture and trade with limited consideration for systemic barriers faced by women. Gender-sensitive policies are essential for achieving equality and empowerment for women, and fostering inclusive and sustainable development across the continent. By incorporating gender perspectives into regional policies like the AU-SPS policy framework, the AU can address systemic inequalities, unlock economic potential, and promote sustainable development for all.

Tuseme Model: A theory of Change for Empowering Girls and Building Inclusive Community-Engaged Schools for Rural Development in Sub-Saharan Africa

KHAITSA M.L. — 2025-10-03

ABSTRACT

Globally, girls, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), face significant educational exclusion due to poverty, traditional practices, and gender norms, with 61% of SSA girls not completing secondary education. Vulnerable groups like refugees and internally displaced persons (IDP) face several barriers. Addressing these inequalities necessitates effective, context-specific pedagogical approaches that promote gender equality and inclusive learning environments. The 'Tuseme' model is a participatory intervention designed to empower learners to identify and address issues hindering their academic and social development, particularly those affecting girls' school participation. “Tuseme” in Kiswahili means ‘let us speak out’. This paper examines Tuseme's role as a Theory of Change for building inclusive, community-engaged schools for rural development. Funded by Global Partnership for Education Knowledge and Innovation Exchange (GPE KIX) and managed by International Development Research Collaboration (IDRC) in partnership with Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE), Higher Education Resource Services-East

Africa (HERS-EA), and Australian Council for Educational Research United Kingdom (ACER UK), this study applied a two-phase approach. Phase 1 sampled 12 mainstream schools (4 per country) in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda to assess the model's existing effectiveness. In this phase, a total of 635 participants were engaged across the three countries, with 221 participants in Ethiopia, 178 in Uganda, and 236 in Kenya. Phase 2 of the study involved a scoping study in 12 schools (four in each country) located within refugee and IDP communities.

Key Words: Tuseme, Quality education, Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, Community, Empowerment, Rural development, Sustainable Development goals, Sub-Saharan Africa

Indigenous Knowledge and the Excluded Public Sphere: A Communication Studies Perspective on Africa's Decolonization

Racheal Hope Namubiru-Auma — 2025-10-03

Abstract

This paper examines how historical and ongoing linguistic marginalization in Africa structurally excludes large segments of the population from participating in the communicative arenas where knowledge is validated, circulated, and commercialized. Anchored in a decolonial communication framework, the analysis draws on Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o’s critique of linguistic imperialism. It interrogates the applicability of Jürgen Habermas’s concept of the public sphere within African contexts. It argues that the dominance of colonial languages in formal communication, particularly in policy, education, and media, restricts access to epistemic legitimacy and perpetuates uneven development discourse, favoring elite, exogenous paradigms. This exclusion constrains the dissemination of indigenous knowledge, which is often embedded in oral and communal communication practices, and hinders its equitable commercialization. Indigenous Knowledge (IK) refers to the local knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society. It is often passed down through generations and involves traditional practices and beliefs. It is inherently "indigenous" to a place and people. Using a critical synthesis of Communication Studies literature, the paper examines how language policies and the structure of digital platforms shape inclusion and exclusion in contemporary African public spheres. It highlights the structural barriers that limit the integration of IK into mainstream development narratives and market systems. The paper concludes by arguing that reconfiguring communicative ecologies to be linguistically and culturally pluralistic is a requisite for advancing epistemic justice and advancing inclusive, knowledge-based development across the continent.

Keywords: Public Sphere, Linguistic Imperialism, Communication, Indigenous Knowledge, Decolonization, Language Policy, Digital Media, Epistemic Justice, Africa.

Conclusions and Lessons learned from the USDA-FAS Scientific Exchange Program: “Establishing and Harmonizing Sanitary and Phytosanitary Regulatory Regimes across the Eight Regional Economic Communities of the African Union “

Margaret Khaitsa — 2025-10-03

The concluding paper ties all the papers together. Two highly experienced co- editors on the USDA-FAS Scientific Exchange program (SEP), Prof. Khaitsa and Dr. Bagumire, distill the key lessons emerging from the SEP and their implications for sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere. The USDA SEP benefitted the USDA's agricultural researchers and SPS scientific personnel as well as SPS experts and agricultural professionals of African member states, RECs and the African Union Commission (AUC). The fellows were empowered by the SEP and on return home, they advocated sound SPS policies to peers, decision-makers, and the public through training and offering a series of workshops. Fellows got certification in skills acquired during their training in the US such as Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) and Preventive Controls Qualified Individual (PCQI). Other significant achievements for the fellows included publication of peer reviewed papers in a special issue of the African Journal of Rural Development (AFJRD). Challenges experienced include a delay in starting the project due to COVID-19 pandemic, insufficient funding to facilitate implementation of research agendas developed by fellows and faculty mentors from Mississippi State University (MSU), and change in administration and policy in the US on use of federal grants. A few MSU faculty could not reciprocate visits to fellows’ home countries in Africa due to unexpected circumstances - fortunately, other faculty substituted them. Lessons learned include use of trained staff in international programs office and provision of resources to support the SEP inception, implementation including budgeting for fellows’ research agendas.